Participants
This article presents thoughts and excerpts from written statements made by ten teachers about practices in British and American education. Teachers, working on their master's degrees in Curriculum and Instruction with a major in the education of gifted students, visited eight schools located in London, Windsor, and Bath. Teacher participants were Susan Doxey, Tina Forester, Kathleen Ganden, Maria Garcia, Judith Gooden, Virginia Livingston, Thomas Merchant, Kimberly Pfaff, Shannon Reed and Maria Saenz-Garcia. Virginia Livingston offered excerpt selection and editing support. Dr. Robert and Mrs. Elizabeth Houston participated in the implementation phase of this field trip.
Introduction
The legal foundation for practices in America and England is based on legislation that came about from parental advocacy to meet the education needs of their "gifted and talented" or "able" children. The parallel process of getting services to children at both ends of the continuum ... handicapped and gifted is noted in Public Law 94-142 for the handicapped student and in Public Law 95-561 for the gifted student. In The United States, both laws are the result of parental initiatives and resulted in programs for able or gifted students. In England, there was a greater emphasis on the total curriculum and the classroom environment. Both countries achieved their goals through similar legal and educated processes.
Gifted Education in the United States
Most school districts in The United States base their education for gifted students on the federal definition on Public Law 95-561 which identifies four components critical to identifying and teaching gifted student (Monaco, 2002). These are: general intellectual abilities, specific academic aptitudes, visual and performing arts talents, leadership, and creative and productive thinking with services starting at the kindergarten level. While most states look at intellectual ability, the majority also considers creativity and includes leadership as well as artistic talent.
The identification process is completed in four phases: (1) referral, (2) assessment, (3) selection, and (4) placement (Monaco, 2002). Referrals are based on teacher judgment, parent nominations, grades, group test scores, or any combination of these. Assessment involves determining the referred child's level of abilities on a battery of tests, which generally include measures of intelligence, achievement, or problem solving. Placement occurs after a school or district team has examined the student's application and determined that there is funding available. Trained teachers must be available.
For example, in Texas every classroom teacher who has identified gifted students in his/ her classroom must have training in the following (Monaco, 2002):
Nature and needs of gifted and talented children
Identification and assessment of gifted and talented children
Social and emotional needs of gifted and talented children
Creativity and instructional strategies, and
Differentiated curriculum
In the United States, the Superintendents of districts oversee the schools. Although many districts allowed site-based management, the central districts still have major influences on the schools. However, when dealing with individual schools, the principal has the most power in the school. Based on the size of the school, most buildings have a vice-principal to help with daily management. The school also has a School Decision Making Committee (SDMC) made up of teachers to help the administrative team in decision-making.
Despite differences in management among districts, every district needs to be responsible for teaching students basic academic and social skills. For example, in Texas, the state provides grade-level guidelines for teachers that identify skills that students need to achieve. The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), or what used to be known as Essential Elements (EE), serve as basic guidelines. These guidelines could be compared to England's attainment targets on the National Curriculum. The courses are divided into subject areas. In the primary grades, the main subjects include the language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Art, music, physical education, drama, and computer technology may be included in the fine arts.
Both countries require a national test. However in the United States, individual states require state tests. Test results compare similarities and differences in student performance and highlight what children need to learn. Although the Texas Assessment Achievements Skills (TAAS) is not a national test, it is a norm-referenced test that is used to assess students' mastery of skills. The advantage of this diagnostic process is that students can learn their strengths and leaning needs. The results of the tests are made public through publication in the local newspaper. In this way, parents can learn more about their children's performance in school.
It is clear that there are similarities in government attempts to reform schools in both England and in the United States. Over the next few years, American educators can learn a great deal by monitoring the changes that take place in England. As educators we should try to move toward the reform that would benefit the lives of the children we teach.
Creativity
Fryer and Collings (1991) presented data from a study of perceptions of creativity among British teachers. The answers came from 1082 teachers from 57 schools and colleges in various geographical regions of England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Seventy-one percent of the teachers were females. The teachers were asked to give a few words to describe their definition of creativity. High on the list were "imagination, original ideas, self-expression and discovery" (Fryer & Collings, 1991). Other characteristics mentioned were "divergent thinking, valuable ideas, and mysterious processes" (Fryer & Collings, 1991).
Ninety-percent believed that creativity is a trait that can be developed. They gave suggestions on how to foster its development including building confidence, having a creative teacher, having family involved, and letting students have some degree of choice in learning methods. The teachers agreed that an environment of informal teaching is helpful, but not a free and permissive atmosphere. Very few teachers thought environments where students are restricted and given many exams promoted creative behavior.
New York born educator, Alexander Osborn believed that creative activity increases creative ability (Monaco, 2002). By using his "brainstorming" technique of group discussion, many ideas are discussed and promote problem-solving skills. Jacob W. Getzels first brought out the fact that intelligence tests will not always identify the creative learner, and there must be another measurement tool, if possible, to detect creative potential (Monaco, 2002).
The study by Fryer and Collings (1991) is an excellent opportunity for teachers to gather their perceptions of creativity so they may be utilized properly. The majority of teachers (90%) believed creativity can be developed. With this knowledge, it is possible to increase the profile of creativity.
Torrance (1992b) has coined the word "Beyonders" to describe those at the very high end of creative achievement. Almost forty years ago, he began a study of a high school class in a school known for its high enrollment of gifted students. The senior students then responded to follow-up questionnaires in 1966, 1970, and 1990. From the study, Torrance was able to identify several common characteristics among the Beyonders. It was found that thirty to forty years later the Beyonders loved the work they were doing, were persistent, had a clear future-focused self-image, never restricted one's field or exploration, had a diversity of experiences and high energy levels, loved challenges, and took pleasure in discovering the reason behind things. The study also showed that although they tried to measure creativity, it was found that the Beyonders did not score as high as expected on the achievement and intelligence tests. As educators, the key is to instill in students the values of persistence, diversity, and challenges. This indirectly increases their creative productivity.
Torrance (1992a) suggests that we establish a foundation on a national basis to help develop creativity. If we can encourage students to form early images of their future careers they have a better chance of experimenting with those images. We should foster such dreams and imagination so that students may have something to develop. We should make the ground fertile for the students' future growth.
In one of Torrance's (1992a) articles, he recounts the results of a study done on creativity. Students were asked to take notes on everything that their parents, neighbors, and classmates complained about and then develop a way to deal with some of these complaints. This was an example of creativity in action, or an environment conducive to invention.
Being imaginative and creative can also stimulate good health; the mind and body are connected. Thus "imagery can be a very powerful tool in mobilizing the resources of the mind and body" (Goff & Torrance, 1991). Relaxation and creative imagery have both been used to aid patients in their belief of recovery. There are other healing qualities attributed to the use of imagery and creativity. These visualizations can heighten self-discovery and expectations: "Our conscious and unconscious images of the future are important driving forces behind future accomplishments" (Goff & Torrance, 1991). Imaginative play is not only artistic expression but helps students discover the learning process, increase problem solving skills, develop positive images, and understand and become aware of other people's behaviors.
There is a dearth of information on how the British view creativity. There has not been much focus on its development in mainstream education. When visiting schools in England, however, we saw evidence of creative teaching and learning. At the Arts Educational School in Bath, students were encouraged to direct, write, and perform in theater events. They learned the meaning of quality and competition when they applied for similar roles in plays currently playing in the theatre district. We also observed a ballet dance class where students expressed themselves in that form and competed for scholarships. At the Kingswood School in Cold Ash; Newbury; Berkshire, students enjoyed activities such as the journalism and newsletter club and were invited to use the computer in any way they wished to produce a product. For the national General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exams, students produced a folder of artwork representative of their best creative efforts. We saw examples of these folders at the Windsor Girls School in Windsor, England and the Arts Educational School in Bath, England. At the Yehudi Menuin School in Stoke d' Abernon, Cobham, Surrey, England, there were several examples of students' artwork that had been framed and displayed in the hallways of the school, thereby encouraging students to continue creating such imaginative displays.
"Able" Education in England
On the other hand, British education of gifted or "able" students does not provide for an identification process and focuses on the classroom environment. The "able learner" environment in England is grounded on five main pillars- individualized study, training in creativity, leadership, psychomotor skills, and academic ability (George, 1995).
In support of current practices, a review of historical legislation lends credence to the reform movement. In 1988, the British Parliament passed the Education Reform Act intended to come up with a standard curriculum for the entire country. With this reform, students aged 5 - 16 in state school must be taught the National Curriculum which was developed by the Department of Education and Science at the national level (Bennet & Deforges, 1991). The National Curriculum comprised of three core subjects (English, mathematics, and science) and six "foundation subjects" (history, geography, art music, information/technology, and physical education). Religious education is also required, but it is not named under this education act (Sweetman, 1997). The national curriculum aimed to provide not only equality of educational opportunity, but relevant curriculum for all children.
The national curriculum is divided into four "Key Stages". The students' age determine which key stages they would be in. Children aged 5-7, 7-11, 11-14, and 14-16 are in key stage 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. Children in Key Stage 1 and 2 are considered to be in primary schools (Sweetman, 1997). Within primary schools, children aged 5-7 go to Infant Schools, and then go on to Junior Schools from ages 7-11. In key stages 1 and 2, the national curriculum consists of ten subjects. These subjects are the core subjects in addition to the foundation subjects. All subjects are made up from programs of study, which describe what students should be taught in each key stage (Smith, 1991). Although the program study sets the skills that each child needs to master, it does not say how the subject should be taught. This is left to the discretion of the teachers (Smith, 1991).
To help monitor and judge students' progress, there are attainment targets for each subject. Each attainment target is written as a series of levels of description. Teachers use these descriptions to judge a student's performance at the end of the key stage. In addition to taking the tests in the classroom, children take national tests in May. The tests are designed to provide an objective assessment of students' achievement. At the end of key stage 1, only math and English are tested. At the end of key stage 2, science is also tested. Once the tests have been graded, the results are reported to parents. The summary of the results is also published in the school's prospectus, along with the score of the national and local districts (Sweeten, 1997).
In England, every school has a headmaster or headmistress. Most schools will also have a governing body, made up of nine or ten people who work with the headteacher, who supervises a curriculum at a grade level. They help make decisions about the development of the school operations. These decisions include things such as making decisions on the budget, on new projects, or hiring of teachers (Firlik, 1995).
The major difference between the United States and England seem to be the power that was allotted to the central government. According to Boyde (1996), "The difference in political history and in the structure of government accounts for this contrast." Other differences include identification and curriculum practices in self-contained learning environments (Boyde, 1996). However, there are still many similarities between these two nations.
Conclusion
When looking at the education practices of the United States and England, it is evident that both countries strive for equality and quality in the education of their "able" or "gifted" students. However, it is interesting to note that although many researchers claim that these countries take different approaches to achieving these goals, there are still recognizable similarities (Cooper, 1992).
Even though educators of the "able" or the "gifted and talented" may use different terminology to describe the manner in which they approach their appointed task, this article shows that there is little difference between the English model for the education of the "able" student and the American model for the education of the "gifted and talented."
自己截选吧.看你需要偏重哪方面. Participants
This article presents thoughts and excerpts from written statements made by ten teachers about practices in British and American education. Teachers, working on their master's degrees in Curriculum and Instruction with a major in the education of gifted students, visited eight schools located in London, Windsor, and Bath. Teacher participants were Susan Doxey, Tina Forester, Kathleen Ganden, Maria Garcia, Judith Gooden, Virginia Livingston, Thomas Merchant, Kimberly Pfaff, Shannon Reed and Maria Saenz-Garcia. Virginia Livingston offered excerpt selection and editing support. Dr. Robert and Mrs. Elizabeth Houston participated in the implementation phase of this field trip.
Introduction
The legal foundation for practices in America and England is based on legislation that came about from parental advocacy to meet the education needs of their "gifted and talented" or "able" children. The parallel process of getting services to children at both ends of the continuum ... handicapped and gifted is noted in Public Law 94-142 for the handicapped student and in Public Law 95-561 for the gifted student. In The United States, both laws are the result of parental initiatives and resulted in programs for able or gifted students. In England, there was a greater emphasis on the total curriculum and the classroom environment. Both countries achieved their goals through similar legal and educated processes.
Gifted Education in the United States
Most school districts in The United States base their education for gifted students on the federal definition on Public Law 95-561 which identifies four components critical to identifying and teaching gifted student (Monaco, 2002). These are: general intellectual abilities, specific academic aptitudes, visual and performing arts talents, leadership, and creative and productive thinking with services starting at the kindergarten level. While most states look at intellectual ability, the majority also considers creativity and includes leadership as well as artistic talent.
The identification process is completed in four phases: (1) referral, (2) assessment, (3) selection, and (4) placement (Monaco, 2002). Referrals are based on teacher judgment, parent nominations, grades, group test scores, or any combination of these. Assessment involves determining the referred child's level of abilities on a battery of tests, which generally include measures of intelligence, achievement, or problem solving. Placement occurs after a school or district team has examined the student's application and determined that there is funding available. Trained teachers must be available.
For example, in Texas every classroom teacher who has identified gifted students in his/ her classroom must have training in the following (Monaco, 2002):
Nature and needs of gifted and talented children
Identification and assessment of gifted and talented children
Social and emotional needs of gifted and talented children
Creativity and instructional strategies, and
Differentiated curriculum
In the United States, the Superintendents of districts oversee the schools. Although many districts allowed site-based management, the central districts still have major influences on the schools. However, when dealing with individual schools, the principal has the most power in the school. Based on the size of the school, most buildings have a vice-principal to help with daily management. The school also has a School Decision Making Committee (SDMC) made up of teachers to help the administrative team in decision-making.
Despite differences in management among districts, every district needs to be responsible for teaching students basic academic and social skills. For example, in Texas, the state provides grade-level guidelines for teachers that identify skills that students need to achieve. The Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), or what used to be known as Essential Elements (EE), serve as basic guidelines. These guidelines could be compared to England's attainment targets on the National Curriculum. The courses are divided into subject areas. In the primary grades, the main subjects include the language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies. Art, music, physical education, drama, and computer technology may be included in the fine arts.
Both countries require a national test. However in the United States, individual states require state tests. Test results compare similarities and differences in student performance and highlight what children need to learn. Although the Texas Assessment Achievements Skills (TAAS) is not a national test, it is a norm-referenced test that is used to assess students' mastery of skills. The advantage of this diagnostic process is that students can learn their strengths and leaning needs. The results of the tests are made public through publication in the local newspaper. In this way, parents can learn more about their children's performance in school.
It is clear that there are similarities in government attempts to reform schools in both England and in the United States. Over the next few years, American educators can learn a great deal by monitoring the changes that take place in England. As educators we should try to move toward the reform that would benefit the lives of the children we teach.
Creativity
Fryer and Collings (1991) presented data from a study of perceptions of creativity among British teachers. The answers came from 1082 teachers from 57 schools and colleges in various geographical regions of England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Seventy-one percent of the teachers were females. The teachers were asked to give a few words to describe their definition of creativity. High on the list were "imagination, original ideas, self-expression and discovery" (Fryer & Collings, 1991). Other characteristics mentioned were "divergent thinking, valuable ideas, and mysterious processes" (Fryer & Collings, 1991).
Ninety-percent believed that creativity is a trait that can be developed. They gave suggestions on how to foster its development including building confidence, having a creative teacher, having family involved, and letting students have some degree of choice in learning methods. The teachers agreed that an environment of informal teaching is helpful, but not a free and permissive atmosphere. Very few teachers thought environments where students are restricted and given many exams promoted creative behavior.
New York born educator, Alexander Osborn believed that creative activity increases creative ability (Monaco, 2002). By using his "brainstorming" technique of group discussion, many ideas are discussed and promote problem-solving skills. Jacob W. Getzels first brought out the fact that intelligence tests will not always identify the creative learner, and there must be another measurement tool, if possible, to detect creative potential (Monaco, 2002).
The study by Fryer and Collings (1991) is an excellent opportunity for teachers to gather their perceptions of creativity so they may be utilized properly. The majority of teachers (90%) believed creativity can be developed. With this knowledge, it is possible to increase the profile of creativity.
Torrance (1992b) has coined the word "Beyonders" to describe those at the very high end of creative achievement. Almost forty years ago, he began a study of a high school class in a school known for its high enrollment of gifted students. The senior students then responded to follow-up questionnaires in 1966, 1970, and 1990. From the study, Torrance was able to identify several common characteristics among the Beyonders. It was found that thirty to forty years later the Beyonders loved the work they were doing, were persistent, had a clear future-focused self-image, never restricted one's field or exploration, had a diversity of experiences and high energy levels, loved challenges, and took pleasure in discovering the reason behind things. The study also showed that although they tried to measure creativity, it was found that the Beyonders did not score as high as expected on the achievement and intelligence tests. As educators, the key is to instill in students the values of persistence, diversity, and challenges. This indirectly increases their creative productivity.
Torrance (1992a) suggests that we establish a foundation on a national basis to help develop creativity. If we can encourage students to form early images of their future careers they have a better chance of experimenting with those images. We should foster such dreams and imagination so that students may have something to develop. We should make the ground fertile for the students' future growth.
In one of Torrance's (1992a) articles, he recounts the results of a study done on creativity. Students were asked to take notes on everything that their parents, neighbors, and classmates complained about and then develop a way to deal with some of these complaints. This was an example of creativity in action, or an environment conducive to invention.
Being imaginative and creative can also stimulate good health; the mind and body are connected. Thus "imagery can be a very powerful tool in mobilizing the resources of the mind and body" (Goff & Torrance, 1991). Relaxation and creative imagery have both been used to aid patients in their belief of recovery. There are other healing qualities attributed to the use of imagery and creativity. These visualizations can heighten self-discovery and expectations: "Our conscious and unconscious images of the future are important driving forces behind future accomplishments" (Goff & Torrance, 1991). Imaginative play is not only artistic expression but helps students discover the learning process, increase problem solving skills, develop positive images, and understand and become aware of other people's behaviors.
There is a dearth of information on how the British view creativity. There has not been much focus on its development in mainstream education. When visiting schools in England, however, we saw evidence of creative teaching and learning. At the Arts Educational School in Bath, students were encouraged to direct, write, and perform in theater events. They learned the meaning of quality and competition when they applied for similar roles in plays currently playing in the theatre district. We also observed a ballet dance class where students expressed themselves in that form and competed for scholarships. At the Kingswood School in Cold Ash; Newbury; Berkshire, students enjoyed activities such as the journalism and newsletter club and were invited to use the computer in any way they wished to produce a product. For the national General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exams, students produced a folder of artwork representative of their best creative efforts. We saw examples of these folders at the Windsor Girls School in Windsor, England and the Arts Educational School in Bath, England. At the Yehudi Menuin School in Stoke d' Abernon, Cobham, Surrey, England, there were several examples of students' artwork that had been framed and displayed in the hallways of the school, thereby encouraging students to continue creating such imaginative displays.
"Able" Education in England
On the other hand, British education of gifted or "able" students does not provide for an identification process and focuses on the classroom environment. The "able learner" environment in England is grounded on five main pillars- individualized study, training in creativity, leadership, psychomotor skills, and academic ability (George, 1995).
In support of current practices, a review of historical legislation lends credence to the reform movement. In 1988, the British Parliament passed the Education Reform Act intended to come up with a standard curriculum for the entire country. With this reform, students aged 5 - 16 in state school must be taught the National Curriculum which was developed by the Department of Education and Science at the national level (Bennet & Deforges, 1991). The National Curriculum comprised of three core subjects (English, mathematics, and science) and six "foundation subjects" (history, geography, art music, information/technology, and physical education). Religious education is also required, but it is not named under this education act (Sweetman, 1997). The national curriculum aimed to provide not only equality of educational opportunity, but relevant curriculum for all children.
The national curriculum is divided into four "Key Stages". The students' age determine which key stages they would be in. Children aged 5-7, 7-11, 11-14, and 14-16 are in key stage 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. Children in Key Stage 1 and 2 are considered to be in primary schools (Sweetman, 1997). Within primary schools, children aged 5-7 go to Infant Schools, and then go on to Junior Schools from ages 7-11. In key stages 1 and 2, the national curriculum consists of ten subjects. These subjects are the core subjects in addition to the foundation subjects. All subjects are made up from programs of study, which describe what students should be taught in each key stage (Smith, 1991). Although the program study sets the skills that each child needs to master, it does not say how the subject should be taught. This is left to the discretion of the teachers (Smith, 1991).
To help monitor and judge students' progress, there are attainment targets for each subject. Each attainment target is written as a series of levels of description. Teachers use these descriptions to judge a student's performance at the end of the key stage. In addition to taking the tests in the classroom, children take national tests in May. The tests are designed to provide an objective assessment of students' achievement. At the end of key stage 1, only math and English are tested. At the end of key stage 2, science is also tested. Once the tests have been graded, the results are reported to parents. The summary of the results is also published in the school's prospectus, along with the score of the national and local districts (Sweeten, 1997).
In England, every school has a headmaster or headmistress. Most schools will also have a governing body, made up of nine or ten people who work with the headteacher, who supervises a curriculum at a grade level. They help make decisions about the development of the school operations. These decisions include things such as making decisions on the budget, on new projects, or hiring of teachers (Firlik, 1995).
The major difference between the United States and England seem to be the power that was allotted to the central government. According to Boyde (1996), "The difference in political history and in the structure of government accounts for this contrast." Other differences include identification and curriculum practices in self-contained learning environments (Boyde, 1996). However, there are still many similarities between these two nations.
Conclusion
When looking at the education practices of the United States and England, it is evident that both countries strive for equality and quality in the education of their "able" or "gifted" students. However, it is interesting to note that although many researchers claim that these countries take different approaches to achieving these goals, there are still recognizable similarities (Cooper, 1992).
Even though educators of the "able" or the "gifted and talented" may use different terminology to describe the manner in which they approach their appointed task, this article shows that there is little difference between the English model for the education of the "able" student and the American model for the education of the "gifted and talented."
自己截选吧.看你需要偏重哪方面.